The differential effects of critical thinking and digital literacy on civic engagement in project-based civic learning: Evidence from Indonesian higher education

Galih Puji Mulyoto; Agus Mukti Wibowo; Mohammad Miftahusyai'an; Basori Basori; Varidlo Fuad

doi:10.21831/jc.v23i2.96905

Authors

Galih Puji Mulyoto UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0649-1587
Agus Mukti Wibowo UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1257-1591
Mohammad Miftahusyai'an UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia
Basori Basori Purdue University, United States
Varidlo Fuad UIN Siber Syekh Nurjati Cirebon, Indonesia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.21831/jc.v23i2.96905

Keywords:

civic education, civic engagement, critical thinking, digital literacy, Indonesian higher education, Project-Based Civic Learning

Abstract

This study examined how critical thinking and digital literacy contribute to civic engagement among pre-service primary school teachers in a Civic Education course using Project-Based Civic Learning (PjBCL) at an Indonesian university. Using a quantitative correlational design, data from 126 students were analysed with partial least squares structural equation modelling. Pre-post gains were large for critical thinking (d = 1.116), digital literacy (d = 1.418) and civic engagement (d = 1.726). The two competencies operated through different mechanisms. Critical thinking partially mediated the effect of PjBCL on civic engagement (indirect effect = 0.038; 95% CI [0.012, 0.072]), whereas digital literacy did not. Although digital literacy was the strongest direct predictor of civic engagement (β = 0.350; f² = 0.124), its link with PjBCL was negligible (β = 0.004; Q² = 0.001), suggesting students develop it mainly through informal online engagement rather than the curriculum. Building on dual-process theory, the study proposes Digitally Scaffolded Civic Learning (DSCL), which embeds digital literacy in each stage of project-based civic instruction, offering implications for curriculum planners in Indonesian civic education.

References

Alrakhman, R., Budimansyah, D., Sapriya, S., & Rahmat, R. (2024). The effect of digital citizenship on the quality learning civic education. Jurnal Civics: Media Kajian Kewarganegaraan, 21(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.21831/jc.v21i1.67086

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173

Bessong, C. D. (2024). Digital literacy and its effect on learners’ civic engagement in adult and vocational education. Masyarakat, Kebudayaan dan Politik, 37(4), 418–431. https://doi.org/10.20473/mkp.V37I42024.418-431

Chang, D.-F., You, J.-Y., & Chang, A. (2023). College students’ civic engagement efficacy and their implementing effects in selected STEM programs. SAGE Open, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231220128

Clements, E. (2020). A conceptual framework for digital civics pedagogy informed by the philosophy of information. Journal of Documentation, 76(2), 571–585. https://doi.org/10.1108/JD-07-2019-0139

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

De Coninck, D., Waechter, N., & d’Haenens, L. (2024). Unraveling the engagement paradox: High civic engagement among vulnerable European youth in the digital age. Journal of Applied Youth Studies. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43151-024-00129-y

De Filippi, F., Coscia, C., Cocina, G. G., Lazzari, G., & Manzo, S. (2022). Digital participatory platforms for civic engagement: A new way of participating in society? Analysis of case studies in four EU countries. In Information Resources Management Association (Ed.), Research anthology on citizen engagement and activism for social change (pp. 218–240). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-3706-3.ch012

Dekker, T. J. (2020). Teaching critical thinking through engagement with multiplicity. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 37, Article 100701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100701

Doolittle, A., & Faul, A. C. (2013). Civic engagement scale: A validation study. SAGE Open, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013495542

Duke, N. K., Halvorsen, A.-L., Strachan, S. L., Kim, J., & Konstantopoulos, S. (2021). Putting PjBL to the test: The impact of project-based learning on second graders’ social studies and literacy learning and motivation in low-SES school settings. American Educational Research Journal, 58(1), 160–200. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831220929638

Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629

Fajri, I., Budimansyah, D., & Komalasari, K. (2022). Digital citizenship in civic education learning: A systematic literature review. Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, 10(3), 837–858. https://doi.org/10.26811/peuradeun.v10i3.755

Fang, F., Meng, Y., Tang, L., & Cui, Y. (2026). Digital natives’ intentions toward informal digital English learning: The roles of desire, engagement, and online learning self-efficacy. Journal of Intelligence, 14(1), Article 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010013

Getenet, S., Cantle, R., Redmond, P., & Albion, P. (2024). Students’ digital technology attitude, literacy and self-efficacy and their effect on online learning engagement. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21, Article 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00437-y

Gonzalez-Mohino, M., Rodriguez-Domenech, M. Á., Callejas-Albiñana, A. I., & Castillo-Canalejo, A. (2023). Empowering critical thinking: The role of digital tools in citizen participation. Journal of New Approaches in Educational Research, 12(2), 258–275. https://doi.org/10.7821/naer.2023.7.1385

Gu, M. M., Huang, C. F., & Lee, C. K. J. (2023). Investigating university students’ digital citizenship development through the lens of digital literacy practice: A translingual and transemiotizing perspective. Linguistics and Education, 77, Article 101226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2023.101226

Guenther, P., Guenther, M., Ringle, C. M., Zaefarian, G., & Cartwright, S. (2023). Improving PLS-SEM use for business marketing research. Industrial Marketing Management, 111, 127–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2023.03.010

Hair, J. F., Risher, J. J., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203

Haryanto, A. T. (2024, January 31). APJII: Jumlah pengguna internet Indonesia tembus 221 juta orang [APJII: Indonesia’s internet users exceed 221 million]. Detik.com. https://inet.detik.com/cyberlife/d-7169749/apjii-jumlah-pengguna-internet-indonesia-tembus-221-juta-orang

Kahne, J., Hodgin, E., & Eidman-Aadahl, E. (2019). Can media literacy education increase digital engagement in politics? Learning, Media and Technology, 44(2), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2019.1601136

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Kemp, S. (2024). Digital 2024: Indonesia. DataReportal. https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2024-indonesia

Krajcik, J. S., & Czerniak, C. M. (2018). Teaching science in elementary and middle school: A project-based learning approach (5th ed.). Routledge.

Li, Y., & Li, G. (2022). The impacts of digital literacy on citizen civic engagement: Evidence from China. Digital Government: Research and Practice, 3(4). https://doi.org/10.1145/3532785

Lin, M.-L., Huang, C.-F., & Chen, H.-C. (2024). Bridging causal explanation and predictive modeling: The role of PLS-SEM. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 13(3), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v13i3.3167

Manzuoli, C. H., Sánchez, A. V., & Bedoya, E. D. (2019). Digital citizenship: A theoretical review of the concept and trends. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 18(2), 10–18. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1211194

Maulana, M. Y., & Milanti, A. A. (2023). A systematic literature review on civic engagement program through citizenship education. Jurnal Civics: Media Kajian Kewarganegaraan, 20(2), 341–358. https://doi.org/10.21831/jc.v20i2.66024

Mehrvarz, M., Keshavarzi, F., Heidari, E., & McLaren, B. M. (2023). Improving computational thinking: The role of students’ networking skills and digital informal learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 32, 6081–6095. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2023.2249049

Meyers, E. M., Erickson, I., & Small, R. V. (2013). Digital literacy and informal learning environments: An introduction. Learning, Media and Technology, 38(4), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2013.783597

Milenkova, V., & Lendzhova, V. (2021). Digital citizenship and digital literacy in the conditions of social crisis. Computers, 10(4), Article 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/computers10040040

Moon, S., & Kim, S. (2020). Components of digital literacy as predictors of youth civic engagement and the role of social media news attention: The case of Korea. Journal of Children and Media, 14(4), 503–518. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1728700

Mulyono, B., Affandi, I., Suryadi, K., & Darmawan, C. (2022). Online civic engagement: Fostering citizen engagement through social media. Jurnal Civics: Media Kajian Kewarganegaraan, 19(1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.21831/jc.v19i1.49723

Murdiono, M., & Wuryandani, W. (2021). Civic and nationalism education for young Indonesian generation in the globalization era. Jurnal Civics: Media Kajian Kewarganegaraan, 18(1), 158–171. https://doi.org/10.21831/jc.v18i1.39452

Nguyen, H. T. T. (2021). Project-based assessment in teaching intercultural communication competence for foreign language students in higher education: A case study. European Journal of Educational Research, 10(2), 933–944. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.10.2.933

Nikou, S., & Mezei, J. (2021). An assessment of the interplay between literacy and digital technology in higher education. Education and Information Technologies, 26, 3893–3915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10472-5

Nurjanah, N., Abdulkarim, A., Komalasari, K., Bestari, P., & Suwandi, M. A. (2024). Critical literacy of young citizens in the digital era. Jurnal Civics: Media Kajian Kewarganegaraan, 21(2). https://doi.org/10.21831/jc.v21i2.70232

Park, S., Fisher, C., Fuller, G., & McGuinness, K. (2023). Exploring the relationship between media literacy, online interaction, and civic engagement. The Information Society, 39(4), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2023.2169913

Peart, M. T., Gutiérrez-Esteban, P., & Cubo-Delgado, S. (2020). Development of the digital and socio-civic skills (DIGISOC) questionnaire. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(6), 3327–3351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09824-y

Polizzi, G. (2021). Internet users’ utopian/dystopian imaginaries of society in the digital age: Theorizing critical digital literacy and civic engagement. New Media & Society, 23(7), 1736–1753. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820904351

Prasetiyo, W. H., Sumardjoko, B., Muhibbin, A., Naidu, N. B. M., & Muthali’in, A. (2023). Promoting digital citizenship among student-teachers: The role of project-based learning in improving appropriate online behaviors. Participatory Educational Research, 10(1), 389–407. https://doi.org/10.17275/per.23.21.10.1

Rafzan, R., Belladonna, A. P., & Saputra, E. (2024). Improving critical thinking skills in civic education based on project citizen building awareness of environmental issues. Jurnal Civics: Media Kajian Kewarganegaraan, 21(2). https://doi.org/10.21831/jc.v21i2.73198

Retnasari, L., Abdulkarim, A., Sundawa, D., Bestari, P., & Kusumawardani, E. (2025). Bridging the participatory gap: Digital literacy and civic engagement among Indonesia’s Gen Z from civic educator’s perspective. Proceedings of the International Conference on Education, 11(1), 250–274. https://www.proceedings.tiikmpublishing.com/index.php/icedu

Riyanto, A. D. (2024, February 21). Hootsuite (We Are Social): Data digital Indonesia 2024 [Hootsuite (We Are Social): Indonesia’s digital data 2024]. Andi.link. https://andi.link/hootsuite-we-are-social-data-digital-indonesia-2024/

Saputra, M., & Al Siddiq, I. H. (2020). Social media and digital citizenship: The urgency of digital literacy in the middle of a disrupted society era. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 15(7), 156–161. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v15i07.13239

Schmitt, J. B., Baake, J., & Kero, S. (2024). What means civic education in a digitalized world? Frontiers in Psychology, 15, Article 1257247. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1257247

Schulz, W., Fraillon, J., Losito, B., Agrusti, G., Ainley, J., Damiani, V., & Friedman, T. (2023). Civic attitudes and engagement framework. In IEA International Civic and Citizenship Education Study 2022 assessment framework(pp. 39–60). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20113-4_3

Sener, T. (2012). Civic engagement of future teachers. Procedia Technology, 1, 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2012.02.003

Spires, H. A., Medlock Paul, C., & Kerkhoff, S. N. (2019). Digital literacy for the 21st century. In M. Khosrow-Pour (Ed.), Advanced methodologies and technologies in library science, information management, and scholarly communication (pp. 12–21). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-7659-4.ch002

Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000). Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(5), 645–665. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00003435

Subhaktiyasa, P. G., Santika, I. D. M., Purnomo, A., & Dantes, G. R. (2024). PLS-SEM for multivariate analysis: A practical guide to educational research using SmartPLS. EduLine: Journal of Education and Learning Innovation, 4(3), 353–365. https://doi.org/10.35877/454RI.eduline2861

Tarsidi, D. Z., Suryadi, K., Budimansyah, D., & Rahmat, R. (2023). Unlocking civic participation: The power of digital literacy for Indonesian digital natives. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 12(3), 292–307.

Uakarn, C., Chaokromthong, K., & Sintao, N. (2021). Sample size estimation using Yamane and Cochran and Krejcie and Morgan and Green formulas and Cohen statistical power analysis by GPower and comparisons. Apheit International Journal, 10(2), 76–88.

White, E. S. (2024). Preservice elementary teachers and future civic teaching. The Journal of Social Studies Research, 48(4), 261–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/23522798241252939

Wibowo, A. M., Utaya, S., Wahjoedi, W., Zubaidah, S., Amin, S., & Prasad, R. R. (2024). Critical thinking and collaboration skills on environmental awareness in project-based science learning. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 13(1), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v13i1.48561

Widiatmaka, P., & Kurniawan, D. (2023). Peningkatan civic literasi dengan memanfaatkan literasi digital melalui pendidikan kewarganegaraan di perguruan tinggi [Improving civic literacy by utilising digital literacy through citizenship education in higher education]. Jurnal Pekommas, 8(1), 59–70.

Witarsa, W., Rusdiana, U., Nuraeni, A., Yohana, N., & Rais, S. T. (2023). Critical thinking as a necessity for social science students capacity development: How it can be strengthened through project-based learning at university. Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pengajaran, 56(1), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.23887/jpp.v56i1.52763

Yuanti, Y., Rantung, D. A., & Prasetyo, T. (2025). Analysis of the effectiveness of project-based learning in improving 21st century skills of students in Indonesian higher education institutions. Jurnal BELAINDIKA (Pembelajaran dan Inovasi Pendidikan), 7(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.52005/belaindika.v7i1.338

Yue, A., Nekmat, E., & Beta, A. R. (2019). Digital literacy through digital citizenship: Online civic participation and public opinion evaluation of youth minorities in Southeast Asia. Media and Communication, 7(2), 100–114. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v7i2.1899

Zhang, L., & Ma, Y. (2023). A study of the impact of project-based learning on student learning effects: A meta-analysis study. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1202728. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1202728

Zubaidah, S., Corebima, A. D., & Mistianah. (2015). Asesmen berpikir kritis terintegrasi tes essay [Critical thinking assessment integrated into essay tests] [Paper presentation]. Symposium on Biology Education (Symbion), Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.