Intersectional identities of Nyai and their resistance to oppressiveness in Indonesian short stories

The dominant values of colonialism influenced indigenous society in defining the status of women and worsening their treatment. This influence can be seen in the concubinage system experienced by the nyai. The figure of nyai not only received systemic oppression, but was also portrayed badly through colonial-era literature. In contrast to colonial-era literature, Indonesian literature in the postcolonial era tries to represent the figure of nyai with her intersectional identity, as well as reveal their resistance to the patterns of systemic oppression experienced in the concubinage system. This research uses a descriptive-qualitative research design. This research design aims to describe the intersectional identity of nyai and their resistance to forms of oppressiveness in Indonesian short stories. The data and information found from the selected short stories will be interpreted qualitatively using Kimberle Crenshaw's intersectionality perspective. The data sources are selected porpusively, namely Indonesian short stories that represent nyai and concubinage in the Dutch East Indies, including (1) Stambul dua Pedang (2013), (2) Racun untuk Tuan (2011), and (3) Keringat dan Susu (2010), all three by Iksaka Banu, and (4) Kutukan Dapur (2003) by Eka Kurniawan. The data are in the form of story facts that include story sequences, characters, settings, themes, and other literary means from data sources that contain information related to the research problem. The data was obtained using reading and note-taking techniques. Furthermore, it was analyzed qualitatively by using Crenshaw's intersectionality perspective. The results of this study show that the intersectionality identity of the nyai in the four short stories above is a woman with charming physique and skills, colonized indigenous race, poverty and low social class, patriarchal system, and colonial system. The oppressions found are intimidation, expulsion, denial of rights as a woman, and murder. The resistance found is utilizing one's own skills, help from other parties, enjoying the role and surrendering to the situation.


INTRODUCTION
Colonialism often leaves problems that are not fully resolved, even after the colonization process ends (Kurnia, Nurgiyantoro, & Fitri, 2021: 76). The dominant values inherited from colonialism often influence colonized societies for a very long time. One of them is the colonial model of marital relations that largely determined the indigenous elite in defining women's status and exacerbating the treatment of already degraded women (Anwar, 2021: 115). Another colonial model that left complicated problems was the concubinage system in Dutch East Indies colonial society.
Concubinage became a very oppressive system for a nyai. This system emerged with the arrival of VOC employees in the archipelago around 1600. The concubinage system placed indigenous women not only in charge of the households of VOC employees, but also served their sexual needs and, in many cases, became the mothers of their children. The system gained ground in European society in the Dutch East Indies and became a colonial system of great social complexity, not only for the European men and the native nyai, but also for the bastaarden born from these unequally mixed relationships (Baay, 2010: 1, Nasution, et al., 2022. A nyai in the concubinage tradition was entangled in a very oppressive system. They do not have any rights, neither over their children, nor over themselves. At any time the nyai could be abandoned by her master, without any form of support (Hellwig, 2007: 35-38).
In colonial society, concubinage was frowned upon and the position of nyai became marginalized. They were considered the cause of moral decadence among soldiers so that, according to Van Rees & De Graaf (Nasution, et al., 2022: 258), the perpetrators often got drunk, tarnished white supremacy, and spread venereal diseases in military tents. The bad image of nyai was also reinforced through literary works in the colonial era. There are several colonial-era literary works that provide a negative description of the figure of nyai in the concubinage system during the Dutch East Indies, including Nyai Dasima (1896) by G. Francis, Vrouwen Lie fen Leed Onder De Tropen (1896) by Therese Hoven, and De Andere Wereld (1946) by Madelon Szekely Lulofs (Janti, 2019). Efforts to negatively image nyai aimed to draw a clear social and a racial divide in Dutch East Indies colonial society (Baay, 2010: 197). In recent times, especially in the postcolonial era, a number of Indonesian literary works have attempted to reveal the lives of nyai differently, either through novels or short stories.
In the context of Indonesian short stories, several writers have attempted to explore the lives of nyai and concubinage during the systemically oppressed Dutch East Indies. Some Indonesian short stories identified as representing nyai and concubinage in the Dutch East Indies include (1) "Stambul dua Pedang" (2013), (2) "Racun untuk Tuan" (2011), and (3) "Keringat dan Susu" (2010), all three by Iksaka Banu, (4) "Love is Dangerous, Tuan Philip" (2021) by Edy Firmansyah, and (5) "Kutukan Dapur" (2003) by Eka Kurniawan. Several studies of these short stories place the nyai, in Spivak's (1988: 287) perspective, as a subaltern group, who have no history and cannot speak. Rusdiarti (2019) researched Kurniawan's short story "Kutukan Dapur" through Bourdieu's perspective and found that the kitchen can be a space of rebellion or resistance for women to be free from the repression of patriarchal culture. The same short story was researched by Irmawati & Gandi (2021) and found that the female characters in the short story were part of the subaltern who tried to resist patriarchal colonialism. The position as a subaltern woman was also found by Rahman & Nurgiyantoro (2019) when examining the short story "Racun untuk Tuan" by Banu.
These studies have identified the nyai in the concubinage system as a subaltern group, but have not revealed the complex, intersecting identities of the nyai, along with their patterns of resistance to the systemic oppressiveness experienced. Gender identity is sometimes not singular, but often faces complex intersecting identities, such as gender, social class, and ethnicity (Udasmoro & Nayati, 2020: vii). These intersecting identities caused the nyai to experience double oppression and discrimination. Therefore, as Anwar (2021: 115) states, efforts to unpack the meaning of human equality in the context of colonialism and postcolonialism must consider how gender, class and power intersect. Thus, Crenshaw's (1991) intersectionality perspective is considered appropriate to analyze the intersectional identity position of the nyai and their resistance patterns, which are represented in Indonesian short stories.
Studies of literary works that represent oppression against women during colonialism are needed for several reasons, including (1) these patterns of oppression have the opportunity to reappear in different forms, but with similar patterns in the era of capitalism (imperialism) (Ilma, 2016: 3). (2) Fiction can make an important contribution because it can reveal, silence, or hide things that are considered irrelevant so that they cannot be found in official information (Suprihatin, 2011: 210). That is why, efforts to demonize the nyai were carried out through the depiction of their bad behavior through literary works in the colonial era. (3) The study of patterns of oppression in literary works during colonialism is a step towards making literary works an effective means of gender awareness so that the number of sexual crimes can be reduced.
This research is basic research in the humanities subfield. This research is designed in line with the strategic plan developed by Yogyakarta State University, especially in scientific development that is beneficial for the advancement of people's lives.

Theoretical study
Colonialism is a form of domination and control over territory, material resources, exploitation of labor, and interference in the political and cultural structures of a region (Loomba, 2005: 11). When a colonized country has formal sovereignty, it is not automatically free from colonial domination and control. Sometimes a country enters a neocolonial situation economically and/or culturally. The emergence of domination and control over colonized territories is what eventually gave rise to postcolonialism. Postcolonialism is a tool for critical analysis of the history, culture, literature, and modes of discourse of colonized territories. These studies have focused primarily on the colonial experiences of third world countries, such as Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and South America (Abrams, 1990: 236). The emergence of this view can mainly be referred to Said's (1978) notion of the term "orientalism" which dissects the specifics of Euro-centric universalism, especially in relation to European or Western superiority and their perception of non-Western cultures (Loomba, 2020: 65;Barry, 2010: 224-225). Postcolonialism is an awareness of the representation of non-Europeans who have been considered as the "Other" (Barry, 2010: 226).
The position as the Other makes the colonized people subordinate, marginalized, and oppressed. This group is referred to as the subaltern (Ratti, 2018: 3). In the context of colonial production, the subaltern has no history and cannot speak. The subaltern as woman is even more immersed in the shadows." (Spivak, 1988: 287;Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin, 2007: 201). The subaltern is a person who has no position or sovereignty outside the discourse that constructs him or her as a subject. In 'Can the Subaltern Speak? ' (1985), Spivak rejects the view that one can access 'pure' subaltern consciousness because the subaltern cannot speak, and therefore be spoken for (Nayar, 2010: 25). Thus, since subalterns cannot speak, it is the duty of postcolonial intellectuals to represent the subalterns (Loomba, 2005: 203).
In contrast to Spivak, Younas (2017: 134) states that it is possible for the subaltern to make his or her voice heard. This view is the result of her analysis of the novel The White Tiger by Adiga. However, different conditions occurred in the case of the nyai during the colonial period in the Dutch East Indies. These women were marginalized, exploited and oppressed. They represented a subaltern group that had no voice. The nyai did not have any rights, neither to their children, nor to themselves. At any time the nyai could be abandoned by her master, without any form of assistance (Hellwig, 2007: 35-38;Baay, 2010: 1). Concubinage was usually preceded by the need to take care of the household, with a pattern of a serve-and-be-served relationship. Native women, usually young, who worked to take care of European men's homes were drawn into the practice of concubinage. Once a concubine, a new hierarchy would be established. The nyai would fill the position of primus interpares (Baay, 2010: 46). Sometimes concubinage occurred with married women. She was bought easily from her husband. Others were offered by the girl's family to European men for money. In 1890 there were 20,000-25,000 European men living in concubinage (Baay, 2010: 49-50).
In terms of background, the nyai mostly came from poor families in Java. The children of poor farmers in Java partly worked as servants in European homes. In this home life, the female servants were completely dependent on their employers. They were economically tied to their employers. In addition, there was a power relationship between white men and native women, in addition to the relationship between employers and workers. The indigenous women also lived in a culture where men and their husbands determined their lives (Baay, 2010: 51). When these indigenous women chose or were forced to become nyai, they were stereotyped. Within societal norms, the position of nyai was almost equated with that of a prostitute as faith-mixed relationships were considered religiously invalid. In such a position, the nyai placed themselves outside of indigenous society and became ostracized (Baay, 2010: 52). Faced with this oppressive system, the nyai tended to remain silent.
The voicelessness of subaltern groups is partly due to the formation of a very strong system of oppression. In many cases experienced by subaltern groups, multiple oppressions are often encountered. The reality in the Third World reveals that women generally face many problems caused by cultural and economic tensions. This condition is experienced by migrant women who live with double oppression; first as second-class citizens and then as Diaspora entities (Karim & Nasir, 2014: 125). In the context of colonialism, the nyai experienced double oppression. They experienced double silencing, both through the patriarchal system and concubinage created by colonialism. This means that subaltern women were silenced because of their gender and race. Under this double pressure, women have no voice. The subaltern woman has no position of speech: she remains within the discourse of patriarchy and colonialism as the object of others' discourse. All ideas and representations of the consciousness of 'subaltern' or Third World women are essentially constructions of Western discourse (Nayar, 2010: 26). Patterns of multiple oppression against women often recur in different places and at different times. Therefore, the study of postcolonial literary criticism is very helpful in revealing the system of oppression experienced by subaltern women, as well as exposing the practices of marginalization and exploitation of women due to the inherited discourse of colonialism.
The pattern of oppression that occurs in women is not just dual. In some cases, the oppressions are multiple and layered (Anggraeni, 2020: 107;Carastathis, 2014: 304). This plural and hierarchical system of oppression intersects or experiences intersections. Intersectionality is a concept introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw to explain patterns of multiple and layered discrimination. According to her, racial discrimination will be difficult to eliminate due to the strong white domination of blacks, which is not only experienced by women but also black men (Crenshaw, 1989). In the case of black women, Crenshaw sees that race and gender intersect (Crenshaw, 1991(Crenshaw, : 1244. Systems of oppression can be multiple or even plural. This tendency is found in many cases, including the nyai in the colonial concubinage system in the Dutch East Indies. The nyai did not only face oppression driven by gender, but also by age, social class, belief system, colonialism, and so on. The nyai lived in a patriarchal system that left them with little choice over their lives. Their social class background came from poor peasant families which led to their entanglement in the concubinage system. The colonial system placed the nyai in a weak and marginalized position. These identities intersect and eventually create multi-layered forms of oppression and discrimination. Based on a search for a number of Indonesian short story studies that represent the lives of nyai and the concubinage system during the colonial period in the Dutch East Indies, some of them have portrayed the position of nyai as a subaltern group. Rusdiarti (2019) researched Kurniawan's short story "Kutukan Dapur" through Bourdieu's perspective and found that the kitchen can be a space for women's rebellion or resistance to be free from the repression of patriarchal culture. The same short story was researched by Irmawati & Gandi (2021) and found that the female characters in the short story were part of the subaltern who tried to resist patriarchal colonialism. Rahman & Nurgiyantoro (2019) also found a position as a subaltern woman when examining the short story "Racun untuk Tuan" by Banu. These studies have not seen oppression as an intersecting system. Critical reading with Spivak's theory must be continued with Crenshaw's views to find patterns of intersectionality oppression through the nonsingle identities of the nyai. It is this intersectional identity that makes the nyai experience oppression and layered discrimination.

METHOD
This study uses a descriptive qualitative research design. This research design is used to describe (a) the intersectional identities of nyai and (b) their resistance to forms of oppressiveness in Indonesian short stories. Data and information found from the selected novels will be interpreted qualitatively using Spivak's subaltern perspective and Kimberle Crenshaw's intersectionality.
The data sources were selected in a porpusive manner, namely Indonesian short stories that represent nyai and concubinage in the Dutch East Indies, including (1) Stambul dua Pedang (2013) The data are in the form of story facts which include story sequences, characters, settings, themes, and other literary means from data sources that contain information related to the research problem. The data was obtained using reading and note-taking techniques. Furthermore, it is analyzed qualitatively by using Kimberle Crenshaw's intersectionality perspective.

Intersectional Identities
Women's identity has long been a subaltern that is so vulnerable to oppression. The data shows that the nyai were indigenous women, the majority of whom came from a low social class. Indigenous women were attractive objects for lonely colonial soldiers. Their skills and charming physiques were also something that could not be ignored. The strong patriarchal belief system also made women helpless. Identity as a colonized citizen is the main cause in addition to other causes.
The intersectional identities of the nyai contained in the short stories studied are gender identity as a woman, having a charming physique and skills, coming from a colonized indigenous race, poverty and coming from a low social class, patriarchal system, and colonial system. Presented in the following table:

Forms of Oppression
Forms of oppression against the nyai in the short stories were found such as intimidation, restraint, physical violence, sexual violence, denial of rights as women, expulsion, and murder. Presented in the following table: Table 2 No Bentuk Opresei Cerpen SDP RuT KdS KD 1.

For of Resistance
The forms of resistance carried out by the nyai include utilizing their own skills, getting help from other parties, or enjoying their role and surrendering to the situation. Presented in the following table: Bantuan dari pihak lain v 3.

The Intersectional Identity of the Nyai and Her Resistance to Oppressiveness in Iksaka Banu's Stambul Dua Pedang Short Story
This short story tells the story of a native woman named Sarni who makes love to a stambul comedy star named Adang Kartawiria. Sarni is actually the wife of a Dutch man named Adelaar, but she doesn't take him as a husband. Sarni's love story with Adang gradually became known to Adelaar. In a letter sent to Sarni, Adelaar challenged Adang to a fencing duel. Sarni, who received this angry and pressurized letter from her husband, felt confused and indecisive about who to side with. Sarni's intersecting identities include: the identity of a native woman with a beautiful face; coming from a low social class; entering the patriarchal system and the grip of colonialism by becoming a mistress. Some of these are reflected in the following quote: "Mungkin mereka ingin tahu, seperti apa wanita Melayu yang menjadi mulia setelah tinggal serumah dengan lelaki lain bangsa. Si cantik dalam sangkar emas. Seperti kataku tadi, dahulu penonton gemar dongeng khayalan, kini mereka suka dongeng nyata. Lagi pula tidak semua kisah nyai berakhir sedih seperti Dasima, bukan?" "Cukup, Adang. Sekarang dengar dan pastikan kau memahami ini, sebab aku takkan mengulang lagi," kali ini tak kututupi rasa kesalku. "Aku-bukanperempuan-sembarangan. Ayahku tidak kaya, tapi dia juru tulis perkebunan. Mengerti? Di luar itu, terutama yang menyangkut diriku saat ini, semata soal nasib. Apakah wanita bisa mengelak dari nasib yang dipilihkan lingkungan untuknya?" (Banu, 2018: 18) Sarni's concern is the unfortunate fate of the nyai, who are often abandoned by their husbands, or sent away when the Dutch wife arrives.
The Nyai discussed in this short story is the mother of Joris. Joris' mother is a victim of concubinage. Her intersex identity includes a native woman who is involved in the concubinage system. The oppression experienced by Joris' mother includes the denial of her rights as a woman, being ostracized by the natives, and murder.
Joris' mother's resistance was to get help from other parties, namely to return with the natives after she was expelled from the Dutch family. However, this never happened, and Mrs. Joris was stoned instead.

The Intersectional Identity of the Nyai in Eka Kurniawan's Kutukan Dapur Short Story
The short story Kutukan Dapur tells the story of a woman living in the colonial era named Diah ayu. She was a native woman who became a Dutch cook. She was sold by her own father to the Dutch because of her extraordinary ability to manage spices and cook. At that time, cooks were part of a Dutch family's pride. In fact, Diah Ayu was nothing but a mistress, a Dutch man fucked her several times until two children were born to her. The identities of interactionality found in Diah Ayu include: a native woman who had extraordinary skills in cooking; came from a low social class, so she was sold by her father; she entered the patriarchal system and the grip of colonialism. This is in the following quote: "Inilah hal-hal salah yang kita kenal dan datang dari dongeng: ia dijual ayahnya kepada seorang Belanda pemilik perkebunan karena fakta kecantikannya. Itu tidak benar. Boleh dikatakan ia tak begitu cantik, meskipun benar Belanda itu beberapa kali menidurinya sampai ia punya dua anak. Fakta yang sesungguhnya adalah ia dibeli karena kemampuan luar biasanya mengelola bumbu, memasak, dan menghidangkan makanan lezat," (Kurniawan, 2018: 4) The oppression that Diah Ayu experienced was the restraint and deprivation of her rights as a free woman. She was restrained and had no freedom. This is illustrated in the following quote: "Bagi keluarga-keluarga Belanda di tanah kolonial, seorang juru masak yang pandai tak hanya merupakan kekayaan keluarga, tapi bahkan harga diri. Mereka bisa memamerkannya dalam perjamuan-perjamuan malam. Itulah mengapa menjadi hal yang tak aneh jika perempuanperempuan pribumi yang ahli dalam penanganan bumbu masak, mendapati diri mereka diperjualbelikan atau diculik," (Kurniawan 2018, 5).
Diah Ayu resisted the oppression that befell her. The resistance was not through physical resistance but through unusual cooking skills. Diah can create strange doughs that can make a man lose his lust. Or also make someone die slowly so that no one thinks that he is a murder victim. This is illustrated in the following quotes: "Ia bisa menciptakan adonan-adonan aneh yang bisa membuat seorang lelaki kehilangan birahi selama-lamanya: ia berhasil melakukan itu setelah si Belanda memberinya dua anak," (Kurniawan 2018, 7).

CONCLUSION
From the discussion above, it can be concluded that the intersectional identity of the nyai in the four short stories above is a woman with a charming physique and skills, they are an indigenous race from a colonized country, they are from a low social class, included in the patriarchal system and colonial system. The oppressions found are intimidation, expulsion, restraint, denial of rights as women, and murder. The resistance found is utilizing self-skills, help from other parties, enjoying the role and surrendering to the situation.